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DAT Respiratory System

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  1. Front
    Groups of cells that have similar structure and function together as a unit are called what?
    Back
    tissues
  2. Front
    What are the four main categories of tissues?
    Back
    1. epithelial 2. connective 3. nervous 4. muscle (Mnemonic: Emily's Chocolate Never Melts)
  3. Front
    What kind of tissue is skin?
    Back
    epithelial (Note: epithelial tissue usually functions as a covering in some manner. )
  4. Front
    What kind of tissue is bone and cartilage?
    Back
    connective
  5. Front
    What kind of tissue is blood?
    Back
    connective
  6. Front
    What is it called when the body brings conditions back to their normal homeostatic function?
    Back
    negative feedback (Note: the body wants to maintain balance. This is the body's most popular way to achieve that end)
  7. Front
    What is it called when the body intensifies a condition beyond it's normal limits?
    Back
    positive feedback (Note: In a way, this still maintains balance - the difference in this case is that the body must over exceed its equilibrium to bring it back eventually)
  8. Front
    What is the movement of gases in and out of the body called?
    Back
    respiration (Note: this term can also mean cellular respiration = production of ATP in mitochondria)
  9. Front
    What is thermoregulation?
    Back
    control of exchange of heat with the environment.
  10. Front
    What are the three terms to describe an organism that obtains body heat from the environment?
    Back
    1. ectotherm 2. poikilotherms 3. cold-blooded
  11. Front
    What are the three terms to describe an organism that generates its own body heat?
    Back
    1. endotherms 2. homeotherms 3. warm-blooded
  12. Front
    How does evaporation act as a regulatory mechanism for animals?
    Back
    body heat is removed through liquid evaporation. (Note: evaporation is an endothermic process- energy needs to be put in for reaction to occur)
  13. Front
    How does metabolism act as a regulatory mechanism for animals?
    Back
    muscle contraction + other metabolic activities produce heat
  14. Front
    How can surface area act as a regulatory mechanism for animals?
    Back
    1. vasodilation (increase diameter of extremity vessels) helps remove heat 2. vasoconstriction (decreasing diameter of extremity vessels) helps retain heat
  15. Front
    What regulatory mechanism is displayed when the body increases blood flow to the ears?
    Back
    using surface area for thermoregulation (Note: sending blood to ears is an example of vasodilation and helps remove heat)
  16. Front
    What kind of respiration occurs when air enters lungs, allowing the alveoli to exchange gas with the blood?
    Back
    external respiration
  17. Front
    What kind of respiration occurs when the blood exchanges gas with the tissues?
    Back
    internal respiration
  18. Front
    Lungs are ______ structures.
    Back
    invaginated
  19. Front
    How many lobes does the left lung have?
    Back
    two (Note: the left lung has to be smaller than the right lung to make room for the heart)
  20. Front
    How many lobes does the right lung have?
    Back
    three
  21. Front
    What are the membranous coverings of the lungs called?
    Back
    pleurae
  22. Front
    What are the two layers of the pleurae?
    Back
    1. visceral pleura 2. parietal pleura
  23. Front
    What is the space between the two layers of the pleurae called?
    Back
    intrapleural space (AKA: pleural space)
  24. Front
    What does the visceral pleura line?
    Back
    surface of the lungs
  25. Front
    What does the parietal pleura line?
    Back
    inside of the chest cavity
  26. Front
    In the intrapleural space, how does the pressure compare to atmospheric pressure?
    Back
    it has a lower (negative) pressure compared to atmospheric (Note: this allows the lungs to remain inflated at all times)
  27. Front
    What happens to the pressure of the intrapleural space when we inhale?
    Back
    the pressure decreases
  28. Front
    What would happen to lungs if the intrapleural space was punctured?
    Back
    lungs would collapse (Note: intrapleural space is now atmospheric pressure, presses up against lungs which results in collapse)
  29. Front
    What happens to the pressure inside the lungs when we inhale?
    Back
    the pressure decreases (Note: diaphragm contracts -> lung cavity increases in volume -> increased volume = decreased pressure -> air, which is higher pressure rushes into lungs)
  30. Front
    What happens to the pressure in the lungs when we exhale?
    Back
    the pressure increases (Note: diaphragm relaxes -> decreases lungs' volume-> increases lungs' pressure above atmospheric-> air rushes out)
  31. Front
    What kind of process is exhalation?
    Back
    passive
  32. Front
    What is the function of breathing?
    Back
    gas exchange: 1. Oxygen (O2) in 2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water out
  33. Front
    What form is CO2 mostly transported in blood?
    Back
    as bicarbonate (abbreviated as HCO3-)
  34. Front
    What are the mechanisms by which CO2 is transported in the blood apart from HCO3-?
    Back
    1. it can dissolve in the blood plasma in its gaseous form 2. it can bind to hemoglobin (called carbaminohemoglobin)
  35. Front
    What is the reaction to convert CO2 into HCO3-?
    Back
    (Note: carbonic acid intermediate)
  36. Front
    What enzyme helps convert CO2 into HCO3-?
    Back
    carbonic anhydrase
  37. Front
    Where does the process of converting CO2 to HCO3- take place?
    Back
    red blood cells (RBCs)
  38. Front
    How is O2 carried in the blood?
    Back
    hemoglobin in RBCs
  39. Front
    What is the structure called where gas exchange occurs in the lungs?
    Back
    alveoli
  40. Front
    What are alveoli coated in to reduce surface tension?
    Back
    surfactant (Note: too much surface tension from H2O would collapse the alveoli)
  41. Front
    What are the two kinds of epithelial cells in human alveoli?
    Back
    1. type 1 (structural support) 2. type 2 (produce surfactant)
  42. Front
    What structure filters, moistens, and warms incoming air in the respiratory system
    Back
    nose
  43. Front
    What structures secrete mucus and trap large dust particles in the nose?
    Back
    goblet cells
  44. Front
    What structure is called the throat and acts as a passageway for food and air?
    Back
    pharynx
  45. Front
    How are dust and mucous removed from the pharynx?
    Back
    swept back from nose by cilia - disposed by either spitting or swallowing
  46. Front
    What structure is called the voice box?
    Back
    larynx
  47. Front
    If non-gas enters larynx, what response is activated?
    Back
    cough reflex
  48. Front
    What structure contains C shaped rings of cartilage and functions to deliver air to and from lungs?
    Back
    trachea
  49. Front
    What is the trachea covered by to remove debris from the airway?
    Back
    ciliated mucus cells
  50. Front
    What are the first branches off the trachea into the lungs?
    Back
    two bronchi
  51. Front
    What are the smaller branches off the two bronchi in the lungs called?
    Back
    bronchioles (AKA secondary bronchi)
  52. Front
    What are the small sacs at the end of the bronchiole branches in the lungs called?
    Back
    alveoli
  53. Front
    What are the alveoli surrounded by?
    Back
    blood-carrying capillaries (Note: this is the whole point of having alveoli - LOTS of surface area to exchange gas with blood)
  54. Front
    How does gas cross the moist, sac membranes of the alveoli?
    Back
    simple diffusion
  55. Front
    How does O2 transfer into the tissues?
    Back
    diffuses out of RBCs-> capillary wall->interstitial fluids->cell membranes->cytoplasm (Note: process for CO2 is the same steps in reverse)
  56. Front
    What describes an important phenomenon that refers to the shift in the oxygen dissociation curve caused by changes in the concentration of CO2 or pH?
    Back
    Bohr Effect
  57. Front
    What shift on an oxygen dissociation curve corresponds with a decrease in hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?]
    Back
    right shift (Note: dotted blue line)
  58. Front
    What shift in an oxygen dissociation curve corresponds with an increase in hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?
    Back
    left shift (Note: dotted red line)
  59. Front
    What shift does increased CO2 cause in the oxygen dissociation curve?
    Back
    right shift (Note: increased CO2 in tissues - lot of respiration - more acidic - and require more O2)
  60. Front
    What shift does increased pH cause in the oxygen dissociation curve?
    Back
    left shift (Note: increased pH means less acidity in tissues = less respiration taking place = less oxygen requirements)
  61. Front
    What shift does increased temperature cause in the oxygen dissociation curve
    Back
    right shift (structure of hemoglobin favors its deoxygenated state in high temperature)
  62. Front
    What shift does increased 2,3-DPG AKA 2,3-BPG cause in the oxygen dissociation curve?
    Back
    right shift (binds to hemoglobin and stabilizes its deoxygenated state = more O2 release)
  63. Front
    How is 2,3-DPG produced?
    Back
    1. made from an intermediate compound in glycolysis 2. made from an enzyme catalyzed reaction at low O2 levels.
  64. Front
    What effect does increased exercise have on CO2 levels?
    Back
    increases CO2 production (Note: this result drops blood pH because CO2 is converted to HCO3- and H+ in RBCs)
  65. Front
    What is the mnemonic to help remember all the factors that shift the oxygen dissociation curve right?
    Back
    a CADET faces right C - CO2 A - Acid D - DPG E - Exercise T - Temperature (Note: an increase in all of these things shifts the curve right)
  66. Front
    How do you know what shifts the oxygen dissociation curve left?
    Back
    think CADET but opposite! (Note: decrease in all the factors results in shift left = increasing hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen)
  67. Front
    What effect does high CO2 and H+ have on hemoglobin?
    Back
    structural change to reduced form = release O2 to tissues and preferentially binds to CO2
  68. Front
    How does hemoglobin release CO2 back at the lungs?
    Back
    1. at lungs conditions are high O2, low CO2 2. hemoglobin structure shifts to non-reduced state 3. unloads CO2, picks up O2
  69. Front
    What term describes how the deoxygenation of blood increases its ability to carry CO2?
    Back
    Haldane Effect
  70. Front
    What does the Haldane Effect say about oxygenated hemoglobin?
    Back
    decreased ability to hold CO2
  71. Front
    When hemoglobin is reduced, what state does it have the capacity to form?
    Back
    carbaminohemoglobin = non-oxygen carrying kind (Note: this is the mechanism for how the Haldane effect works)
  72. Front
    What is the best way to summarize the Haldane effect?
    Back
    [O2] affects hemoglobins binding to CO2 and H+ (note: process works in synchrony to facilitate the liberation of O2 and uptake of CO2 and H+)
  73. Front
    What percent of blood oxygen binds rapidly and reversibly to hemoglobin in RBC's?
    Back
    98% (Note: called oxyhemoglobin)
  74. Front
    How many subunits does hemoglobin have?
    Back
    four
  75. Front
    Each hemoglobin subunit houses a _____ cofactor
    Back
    heme (Note: organic molecule with an iron atom in the center)
  76. Front
    How many O2 molecules can the iron atom in a heme cofactor bind?
    Back
    one O2 molecule (Note: total of four in one molecule of hemoglobin)
  77. Front
    What is cooperativity in hemoglobin?
    Back
    when one molecule of O2 binds, other O2 molecules can bind easier (Note: explains sigmoidal shape for oxygen dissociation curve because O2 binding changes hemoglobin's affinity for other O2 molecules)
  78. Front
    What effect does increased O2 pressure have on cooperativity?
    Back
    O2 saturation of hemoglobin increases (Note: this makes sense! It is ideal to have hemoglobin want to hang onto oxygen in the lungs and let go of oxygen in the tissues)
  79. Front
    According to the Bohr Effect, why do conditions of low pH decrease hemoglobin's affinity for O2?
    Back
    1. O2 and H+ compete for binding sites on hemoglobin 2. low pH means high CO2 and high H+ 3. result is more O2 is unloaded at tissues
  80. Front
    What is the chloride shift?
    Back
    the exchange of Cl- for HCO3- ions in erythrocytes
  81. Front
    What is the chloride shift intended for?
    Back
    balance HCO3- entering and leaving cells (Note: both Cl- and HCO3- carry the same charge (-1), so they are transported oppositely in direct proportion)
  82. Front
    What is the part of the brain that primarily controls breathing?
    Back
    medulla oblongata
  83. Front
    What does the medulla oblongata do when the partial pressure of CO2 increases?
    Back
    increases breathing
  84. Front
    When the medulla stimulates a breath, what happens to the diaphragm?
    Back
    contracts
  85. Front
    What nerve innervates the diaphragm primarily?
    Back
    phrenic nerve
  86. Front
    What structure contains central chemoreceptors?
    Back
    medulla oblongata
  87. Front
    What do central chemoreceptors detect?
    Back
    indirectly monitor [H+] in the cerebrospinal fluid
  88. Front
    What structure contains peripheral chemoreceptors?
    Back
    heart (specifically, carotid arteries and aorta)
  89. Front
    What do peripheral chemoreceptors detect?
    Back
    monitor the atrial concentrations of CO2, O2, and pH via [H+]
  90. Front
    What type of cell is found in the trachea and upper respiratory system?
    Back
    ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells (Note: tall = pack close together = protect from outside environment = goblet cells are often present to produce mucus)
  91. Front
    What disease is marked by the destruction of alveoli?
    Back
    emphysema (Note: often caused by smoking)
  92. Front
    What effect can smoking cause in ciliated pseudostratified columnar cells in the respiratory tract?
    Back
    paralyze cilia (Note: allows toxins to stay in lungs)
  93. Front
    What effect can smoking cause in goblet cells?
    Back
    increased mucous production (Note: this, in tandem with damaged cilia results in a constant, yet unproductive cough)
  94. Front
    What diseases can the effects of smoking lead to?
    Back
    bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer
  95. Front
    What condition does respiratory acidosis result from?
    Back
    inadequate ventilation (Note: don't blow off enough CO2, increased CO2-> increased H+ -> lower pH)
  96. Front
    What does the body do to compensate for respiratory acidosis?
    Back
    increase breathing rate (Note: attempt to clear more CO2)
  97. Front
    What condition does respiratory alkalosis result from?
    Back
    breathing too rapidly (Note: losing too much CO2 -> HCO3- and H+ combine to make CO2 -> replenish CO2 but lose H+, so increased pH)
  98. Front
    how does the body compensate for respiratory alkalosis?
    Back
    decrease breathing rate (Note: clear less CO2)
  99. Front
    What kind of O2 dissociation curve does myoglobin possess?
    Back
    hyperbolic (steep!)
  100. Front
    What is the reason for myoglobin's hyperbolic dissociation curve?
    Back
    Only one binding site! No cooperativity! (Note: useful in emergency situations - when ppO2 gets extremely low)
  101. Front
    How is the fetal hemoglobin O2 dissociation curve shifted relative to the adult hemoglobin curve?
    Back
    left
  102. Front
    What is the reason for fetal hemoglobin's O2 dissociation curve shifted left?
    Back
    it needs to have a higher binding affinity compared to mom's (Note: if it was the same affinity in the baby, it would not be able to carry oxygen to the fetal tissues)
  103. Front
    How does carbon monoxide's binding affinity to hemoglobin compare to oxygen's?
    Back
    200x greater affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen (Note: that is why it is deadly - extremely hard to remove once it is bound)
  104. Front
    What is the volume of air that is normally inhaled or exhaled in one quiet breath?
    Back
    tidal volume (Vt) (Note: think simple, normal breathing)
  105. Front
    What is the maximum volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation?
    Back
    inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) (Note: inhale normally, then forcefully inhale as much as you can after)
  106. Front
    What is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation
    Back
    expiratory reserve volume (ERV) (Note: normal exhale, then forcefully exhale as much as you can after)
  107. Front
    What is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after maximum exhalation?
    Back
    residual volume (RV) (Note: air that is impossible to exhale)
  108. Front
    What is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inspiration?
    Back
    vital capacity (VC) (Note: expressed as IRV + VT + ERV)
  109. Front
    What is the volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal exhalation?
    Back
    inspiratory capacity (IC) (Note: expressed as VT + IRV)
  110. Front
    What is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after normal exhalation?
    Back
    functional residual capacity (FRC) (Note: expressed as ERV + RV)
  111. Front
    What is the maximum volume of air the lungs can accommodate?
    Back
    total lung capacity (TLC) (Note: expressed as IC + FRC)

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