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12.1.1 - Pages 1-8

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  1. Front
    Metabolism
    Back
    The sum of the chemical changes that convert nutrients into energy and complex products
  2. Front
    Metabolism
    Back
    The total of all chemical reactions occurring in the body
  3. Front
    Functions of metabolism
    Back
    Breaking down molecules to release energy and building molecules the body needs
  4. Front
    Enzymatic reactions
    Back
    Metabolic reactions that are catalyzed and controlled by enzymes
  5. Front
    Metabolic pathways
    Back
    Organized sequences of enzymatic reactions in metabolism
  6. Front
    Metabolic maps
    Back
    Diagrams that show metabolic reactions and pathways
  7. Front
    Substrate
    Back
    The starting molecule that an enzyme acts on
  8. Front
    Intermediate
    Back
    A molecule formed in the middle of a metabolic pathway
  9. Front
    Example of pathway progression
    Back
    A → B → C → D represents sequential metabolic reactions
  10. Front
    Role of enzymes in pathways
    Back
    Each step in a metabolic pathway is typically catalyzed by a specific enzyme
  11. Front
    Organization of metabolism
    Back
    Molecules are converted through many small enzyme-controlled steps rather than one large reaction
  12. Front
    Advantages of stepwise metabolism
    Back
    Allows regulation, energy capture, and branching into other pathways
  13. Front
    Nutrients
    Back
    Molecules obtained from food that serve as raw materials for metabolism
  14. Front
    Examples of nutrients
    Back
    Glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
  15. Front
    Enzyme
    Back
    A protein catalyst that accelerates chemical reactions without being consumed
  16. Front
    Catalyst
    Back
    A substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being used up
  17. Front
    Pathway
    Back
    A series of ordered biochemical reactions converting substrates into products
  18. Front
    Metabolic network
    Back
    Interconnected pathways where products of one pathway become substrates for another
  19. Front
    ATP
    Back
    Adenosine triphosphate, the universal energy currency of the cell
  20. Front
    Energy currency molecule
    Back
    A molecule that stores and transfers energy for cellular processes
  21. Front
    Cellular processes requiring ATP
    Back
    Biosynthesis, active transport, muscle contraction, signaling, and maintenance of ion gradients
  22. Front
    ATP production source
    Back
    Energy from oxidation of fuels such as glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
  23. Front
    Oxidation
    Back
    Loss of electrons from a molecule
  24. Front
    Energy generation from fuels
    Back
    Fuels are oxidized, releasing energy that is captured to produce ATP
  25. Front
    Fuel molecules for metabolism
    Back
    Glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
  26. Front
    NADPH
    Back
    A reduced electron carrier used primarily for reductive biosynthesis
  27. Front
    Electron donor
    Back
    A molecule that provides electrons to another molecule
  28. Front
    Reductive biosynthesis
    Back
    The building of molecules through reactions that require the addition of electrons
  29. Front
    Reduction
    Back
    Gain of electrons by a molecule
  30. Front
    Examples of NADPH-dependent biosynthesis
    Back
    Fatty acid synthesis and cholesterol synthesis
  31. Front
    Biosynthetic pathways
    Back
    Pathways that build complex molecules from simpler ones
  32. Front
    Degradative pathways
    Back
    Pathways that break down complex molecules into simpler ones
  33. Front
    Catabolism
    Back
    Metabolic processes that break down molecules and release energy
  34. Front
    Anabolism
    Back
    Metabolic processes that synthesize complex molecules and require energy
  35. Front
    Reason anabolic and catabolic pathways differ
    Back
    Allows separate control, proper thermodynamics, and prevention of futile cycles
  36. Front
    Core metabolic principle
    Back
    ATP is the universal energy currency
  37. Front
    Primary source of ATP generation
    Back
    Oxidation of metabolic fuels
  38. Front
    Role of NADPH in metabolism
    Back
    Provides electrons for anabolic reactions
  39. Front
    Relationship of anabolic and catabolic pathways
    Back
    They are usually separate rather than exact reversals of each other
  40. Front
    Catabolism
    Back
    Breakdown of large or energy-rich molecules into smaller molecules
  41. Front
    Examples of nutrients entering catabolism
    Back
    Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
  42. Front
    Major end products of catabolism
    Back
    Carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia
  43. Front
    Source of carbon dioxide in metabolism
    Back
    Carbon atoms from nutrient molecules
  44. Front
    Source of water in metabolism
    Back
    Hydrogen atoms from nutrients combine with oxygen
  45. Front
    Initial nitrogen waste product
    Back
    Ammonia produced from amino acid breakdown
  46. Front
    Energy captured during catabolism
    Back
    ATP, NADH, and FADH2
  47. Front
    ATP function in metabolism
    Back
    Directly usable energy for cellular work
  48. Front
    NADH and FADH2 function
    Back
    Electron carriers that contribute to ATP production
  49. Front
    Reducing equivalents
    Back
    Molecules carrying electrons that can be used in metabolic reactions
  50. Front
    Anabolism
    Back
    The synthesis of complex macromolecules from smaller precursors
  51. Front
    Examples of precursor molecules
    Back
    Amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, and nitrogenous bases
  52. Front
    Examples of macromolecules produced by anabolism
    Back
    Proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acids
  53. Front
    Energy requirements of anabolism
    Back
    Requires ATP and reducing power
  54. Front
    Reducing power in anabolism
    Back
    Often provided by NADPH
  55. Front
    Relationship between catabolism and anabolism
    Back
    Catabolism supplies energy and building blocks that anabolism uses
  56. Front
    Characteristics of catabolism
    Back
    Breakdown reactions that release energy and are generally oxidative
  57. Front
    Characteristics of anabolism
    Back
    Synthetic reactions that consume energy and are generally reductive
  58. Front
    ATP
    Back
    Adenosine triphosphate composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups
  59. Front
    Adenine
    Back
    A nitrogen-containing base in ATP
  60. Front
    Ribose
    Back
    A five-carbon sugar in ATP
  61. Front
    Phosphate groups in ATP
    Back
    Alpha, beta, and gamma phosphates
  62. Front
    Alpha phosphate
    Back
    The phosphate group closest to ribose in ATP
  63. Front
    Beta phosphate
    Back
    The middle phosphate group in ATP
  64. Front
    Gamma phosphate
    Back
    The terminal phosphate group in ATP
  65. Front
    Phosphoanhydride bonds
    Back
    Bonds connecting phosphate groups in ATP
  66. Front
    Locations of phosphoanhydride bonds
    Back
    Bonds between alpha–beta and beta–gamma phosphates
  67. Front
    High-energy phosphate bonds
    Back
    Common term describing ATP phosphoanhydride bonds
  68. Front
    True reason ATP hydrolysis releases energy
    Back
    The products are thermodynamically more stable than ATP
  69. Front
    Functions of ATP
    Back
    Phosphate transfer, coupling reactions, and rapid regeneration from ADP
  70. Front
    ATP energy role
    Back
    Immediate-use energy molecule rather than long-term storage
  71. Front
    ATP hydrolysis
    Back
    ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi
  72. Front
    ADP
    Back
    Adenosine diphosphate formed after ATP hydrolysis
  73. Front
    Pi
    Back
    Inorganic phosphate released during ATP hydrolysis
  74. Front
    Hydrolysis
    Back
    Breaking a chemical bond by addition of water
  75. Front
    Standard free energy change of ATP hydrolysis
    Back
    Approximately −30.5 kJ/mol or −7.3 kcal/mol
  76. Front
    Meaning of negative ΔG°’
    Back
    The reaction is thermodynamically favorable
  77. Front
    Thermodynamic favorability
    Back
    A reaction that releases free energy
  78. Front
    Kinetic stability
    Back
    A reaction proceeds slowly despite being thermodynamically favorable
  79. Front
    ATP stability in water
    Back
    ATP does not rapidly hydrolyze in water because it is kinetically stable
  80. Front
    Enzymes that accelerate ATP hydrolysis
    Back
    ATPases and kinases
  81. Front
    Importance of activation energy barrier
    Back
    Prevents ATP from hydrolyzing rapidly without enzymes
  82. Front
    Reasons ATP hydrolysis releases energy
    Back
    Relief of electrostatic repulsion, increased resonance stabilization, and better hydration of products
  83. Front
    Electrostatic repulsion in ATP
    Back
    Negative charges on phosphate groups repel each other
  84. Front
    Resonance stabilization of products
    Back
    ADP and Pi have more stable electron distribution than ATP
  85. Front
    Hydration stabilization
    Back
    ADP and Pi interact more favorably with water than ATP
  86. Front
    High-energy compounds
    Back
    Molecules with high phosphoryl-transfer potential used in metabolism
  87. Front
    Examples of nucleoside triphosphates
    Back
    UTP, GTP, and CTP
  88. Front
    Energy similarity of nucleoside triphosphates
    Back
    UTP, GTP, and CTP have phosphate bond energies similar to ATP
  89. Front
    GTP function
    Back
    Used in signaling and protein synthesis
  90. Front
    UTP function
    Back
    Used in glycogen synthesis
  91. Front
    CTP function
    Back
    Used in lipid metabolism
  92. Front
    Adenylate kinase reaction
    Back
    ADP + ADP ↔ AMP + ATP
  93. Front
    Purpose of adenylate kinase reaction
    Back
    Helps maintain cellular energy balance
  94. Front
    Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
    Back
    A high-energy intermediate with very high phosphoryl-transfer potential
  95. Front
    Role of PEP
    Back
    Participates in substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis
  96. Front
    1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
    Back
    A high-energy intermediate in glycolysis
  97. Front
    Creatine phosphate
    Back
    A high-energy phosphate compound that buffers ATP levels in muscle
  98. Front
    Function of creatine phosphate
    Back
    Rapid regeneration of ATP from ADP
  99. Front
    Acetyl-CoA
    Back
    A central metabolic intermediate containing a high-energy thioester bond
  100. Front
    Importance of high-energy intermediates
    Back
    Energy from these molecules can be transferred to form ATP
  101. Front
    ATP synthesis reaction
    Back
    ADP + Pi → ATP + H2O
  102. Front
    Standard free energy change of ATP synthesis
    Back
    Approximately +30.5 kJ/mol
  103. Front
    Energy requirement for ATP synthesis
    Back
    ATP formation is endergonic and requires energy input
  104. Front
    Phosphorylation
    Back
    Addition of a phosphate group to a molecule
  105. Front
    ATP-forming phosphorylation
    Back
    Addition of phosphate to ADP to form ATP
  106. Front
    Photosynthetic phosphorylation
    Back
    ATP generation using light energy in plants, algae, and some bacteria
  107. Front
    Mechanism of photosynthetic phosphorylation
    Back
    Light-driven electron flow creates a proton gradient used to synthesize ATP
  108. Front
    Occurrence of photosynthetic phosphorylation
    Back
    In photosynthetic organisms rather than humans
  109. Front
    Oxidative phosphorylation
    Back
    Major ATP-producing process in mitochondria
  110. Front
    First step of oxidative phosphorylation
    Back
    Oxidation of fuels generates NADH and FADH2
  111. Front
    Electron transport chain
    Back
    A series of protein complexes transferring electrons
  112. Front
    Final electron acceptor in oxidative phosphorylation
    Back
    Oxygen
  113. Front
    Proton gradient in mitochondria
    Back
    Electrochemical gradient generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane
  114. Front
    ATP synthase
    Back
    Enzyme that produces ATP using the proton gradient
  115. Front
    Location of oxidative phosphorylation
    Back
    Inner mitochondrial membrane
  116. Front
    Substrate-level phosphorylation
    Back
    Direct formation of ATP from ADP by transfer of a phosphate from a high-energy substrate
  117. Front
    Examples of substrate-level phosphorylation substrates
    Back
    Phosphoenolpyruvate, 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, and succinyl-CoA
  118. Front
    Difference from oxidative phosphorylation
    Back
    Does not require the electron transport chain or oxygen directly
  119. Front
    Pathways containing substrate-level phosphorylation
    Back
    Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
  120. Front
    Oxidative phosphorylation characteristics
    Back
    Uses electron transport chain, oxygen as final electron acceptor, and proton gradient
  121. Front
    ATP yield of oxidative phosphorylation
    Back
    Produces large amounts of ATP
  122. Front
    Substrate-level phosphorylation characteristics
    Back
    Direct phosphate transfer to ADP without electron transport chain
  123. Front
    Definition of oxidation
    Back
    Loss of electrons in a chemical reaction
  124. Front
    Definition of reduction
    Back
    Gain of electrons in a chemical reaction
  125. Front
    Energy relationship in metabolism
    Back
    Catabolism produces ATP and NADH while anabolism consumes ATP and NADPH
  126. Front
    Structure of ATP
    Back
    Adenine base, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups
  127. Front
    ATP hydrolysis reaction
    Back
    ATP → ADP + Pi
  128. Front
    Thermodynamic property of ATP hydrolysis
    Back
    Negative free energy change
  129. Front
    Thermodynamic property of ATP synthesis
    Back
    Positive free energy change
  130. Front
    Types of ATP production
    Back
    Oxidative phosphorylation, substrate-level phosphorylation, and photosynthetic phosphorylation

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