What number of covalent bonds can form between two atoms?

1(single), 2(double), or 3(triple)

Which covalent bond involves unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms of different electronegativities?

polar (Note: leads to the formation of a dipole)

Which property of water describes its ability to absorb a large amount of energy before changing temperature?

high heat capacity (Note: also explains water's high heat of vaporization)

Which property of water describes its expansion upon freezing to become less dense than its liquid form?

ice floats (Note: H-bonds are maximum distance apart)

Which property of water describes its attraction to like substances and itself?

cohesion/surface tension (Note: attracted to other substances with H-bonds, including itself!)

Which property of water describes its attraction to unlike substances?

adhesion (Note: capillary action is the flow of water without external force - ex: against gravity)

What is the chemical formula for the hydroxyl functional group?

OH (Note: polar and hydrophilic)

What is the chemical formula for the carboxyl functional group?

COOH (Note: polar, hydrophilic, and a weak acid)

What is the chemical formula for the amino functional group?

NH2 (Note: polar, hydrophilic, and a weak base)

What is the chemical formula for the phosphate functional group?

(PO4)3- (Note: polar, hydrophilic, acid)

What is the chemical formula for the carbonyl functional group?

C=O (Note: polar and hydrophilic)

What is the term for a single sugar molecule?

monosaccharide (ex: glucose or fructose)

What structural component differentiates a monosaccharide as alpha or beta?

1. anomeric carbon -OH down = alpha 2. anomeric carbon -OH up = beta (Note: to remember, think alpha means away)

What is a two-sugar molecule joined by a glycosidic linkage?

disaccharide (Note: sucrose, lactose, and maltose)

What is a polymer of alpha-glucose molecules; store energy in animal cells?

glycogen (Note: differ in polymer branching from starch)

What is a polymer similar to cellulose, except each beta-glucose group has a nitrogen-containing group (n-acetylglucosamine) attached to the ring?

chitin (Note: structural molecule in insect exoskeletons and fungal cell walls)

What are lipids consisting of three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone?

triglycerides (AKA: triacylglycerols)

Which triglyceride contains no double bonds and has straight chains?

saturated (Note: are bad for health since the straight chains stack densely and form fat plaques)

Which triglyceride contains double bonds that cause kinks in chains?

unsaturated (Note: are better for health since chains stack less densely; can be cis or trans)

Which lipid derivates contain three 6 membered rings and one 5 membered ring?

steroids (Note: sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids)

Which lipid derivatives are fatty acid carbon chains with conjugated double bonds and six-membered C-rings at each end?

carotenoids (Note: includes pigments which produce colors in plants and animals. Subgroups are carotenes and xanthophylls)

Which lipid derivatives are a 4 joined pyrrole ring that often complexes with a metal?

porphyrins (AKA: tetrapyrroles)

Public flashcard deck · 500 cards

DAT Biology Chapter 1

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Front
What is the fundamental building block of matter composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons?
Back
atom
Front
What is a group of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds?
Back
molecule
Front
What term describes the ability of an atom to attract electrons?
Back
electronegativity
Front
Which chemical bond involves the transfer of electrons from atom to atom where both atoms have different electronegativities?
Back
ionic
Front
Which chemical bond involves electrons shared between atoms of similar electronegativities?
Back
covalent
Front
What number of covalent bonds can form between two atoms?
Back
1(single), 2(double), or 3(triple)
Front
Which covalent bond involves equal sharing of electrons between two atoms of identical electronegativity?
Back
non-polar
Front
Which covalent bond involves unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms of different electronegativities?
Back
polar (Note: leads to the formation of a dipole)
Front
Which chemical bond involves a weak bond between molecules with a hydrogen attached to a highly electronegative atom and is attracted to a negative charge on another molecule (F, O, or N)?
Back
hydrogen bond
Front
Which property of water describes its ability to dissolve substances with its dipole?
Back
excellent solvent
Front
Which property of water describes its ability to absorb a large amount of energy before changing temperature?
Back
high heat capacity (Note: also explains water's high heat of vaporization)
Front
Which property of water describes its expansion upon freezing to become less dense than its liquid form?
Back
ice floats (Note: H-bonds are maximum distance apart)
Front
Which property of water describes its attraction to like substances and itself?
Back
cohesion/surface tension (Note: attracted to other substances with H-bonds, including itself!)
Front
Which property of water describes its attraction to unlike substances?
Back
adhesion (Note: capillary action is the flow of water without external force - ex: against gravity)
Front
What are molecules composed of carbon atoms?
Back
organic molecules
Front
What is the simplest unit of a macromolecule?
Back
monomer (1 unit)
Front
What is the term for the linking of monomers?
Back
polymer
Front
What are are particular clusters of atoms that give organic molecules their key properties?
Back
functional groups
Front
What is the chemical formula for the hydroxyl functional group?
Back
OH (Note: polar and hydrophilic)
Front
What is the chemical formula for the carboxyl functional group?
Back
COOH (Note: polar, hydrophilic, and a weak acid)
Front
What is the chemical formula for the amino functional group?
Back
NH2 (Note: polar, hydrophilic, and a weak base)
Front
What is the chemical formula for the phosphate functional group?
Back
(PO4)3- (Note: polar, hydrophilic, acid)
Front
What is the chemical formula for the carbonyl functional group?
Back
C=O (Note: polar and hydrophilic)
Front
What is the chemical formula for the aldehyde functional group?
Back
H-C=O
Front
What is the chemical formula for the ketone functional group?
Back
R-C=O
Front
What is the chemical formula for the methyl functional group?
Back
CH3
Front
What is the term for a single sugar molecule?
Back
monosaccharide (ex: glucose or fructose)
Front
What structural component differentiates a monosaccharide as alpha or beta?
Back
1. anomeric carbon -OH down = alpha 2. anomeric carbon -OH up = beta (Note: to remember, think alpha means away)
Front
What is a two-sugar molecule joined by a glycosidic linkage?
Back
disaccharide (Note: sucrose, lactose, and maltose)
Front
What is a series of connected monosaccharides?
Back
polysaccharide
Front
By what mechanism do polymers bonds form?
Back
dehydration synthesis
Front
By what mechanism do polymers bonds break?
Back
hydrolysis
Front
Which monomers compose sucrose?
Back
glucose + fructose
Front
Which monomers compose lactose?
Back
glucose + galactose
Front
Which monomers compose maltose?
Back
glucose + glucose
Front
What is a polymer of alpha-glucose molecules; store energy in plant cells?
Back
starch
Front
What is a polymer of alpha-glucose molecules; store energy in animal cells?
Back
glycogen (Note: differ in polymer branching from starch)
Front
What is a polymer of beta-glucose; structural molecules for walls of plant cells and wood
Back
cellulose
Front
What is a polymer similar to cellulose, except each beta-glucose group has a nitrogen-containing group (n-acetylglucosamine) attached to the ring?
Back
chitin (Note: structural molecule in insect exoskeletons and fungal cell walls)
Front
What are hydrophobic molecules that function in insulation, energy storage?
Back
lipids
Front
What are lipids consisting of three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone?
Back
triglycerides (AKA: triacylglycerols)
Front
Which triglyceride contains no double bonds and has straight chains?
Back
saturated (Note: are bad for health since the straight chains stack densely and form fat plaques)
Front
Which triglyceride contains double bonds that cause kinks in chains?
Back
unsaturated (Note: are better for health since chains stack less densely; can be cis or trans)
Front
What are lipids comprised of two fatty acids and a phosphate group (+R) attached to a glycerol backbone?
Back
phospholipids
Front
What is the term for a phospholipid exhibiting both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties?
Back
amphipathic
Front
Which lipid derivates contain three 6 membered rings and one 5 membered ring?
Back
steroids (Note: sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids)
Front
Which lipid derivatives are esters of fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols, used as protective coating or exoskeletons (lanolin)?
Back
waxes
Front
Which lipid derivatives are fatty acid carbon chains with conjugated double bonds and six-membered C-rings at each end?
Back
carotenoids (Note: includes pigments which produce colors in plants and animals. Subgroups are carotenes and xanthophylls)
Front
Which lipid derivatives are a 4 joined pyrrole ring that often complexes with a metal?
Back
porphyrins (AKA: tetrapyrroles)
Front
Which lipid derivatives are specialized fat cells?
Back
adipocytes
Front
Which adipocyte is composed primarily of triglycerides with a small layer of cytoplasm around it?
Back
white fat cell
Front
Which adipocyte has considerable cytoplasm, lipid droplets scattered throughout, and lots of mitochondria?
Back
brown fat cell
Front
Which lipid derivatives are similar to phospholipids but have a carbohydrate group instead of a phosphate group?
Back
glycolipids
Front
Which lipid derivatives contain lipid cores surrounded by phospholipids and apolipoproteins to transport fats in the blood?
Back
lipoproteins
Front
What membrane components might cells modify to maintain their cell membrane's fluidity?
Back
fatty acids
Front
In cold weather, what naturally happens to cell membranes?
Back
become rigid
Front
In warm weather, what naturally happens to cell membranes?
Back
become more fluid
Front
In cold weather, how does a cell compensate to prevent cell membrane rigidity?
Back
incorporate cholesterol and mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids into the membrane
Front
In warm weather, how does a cell compensate to prevent cell membrane collapse?
Back
incorporate cholesterol into the membrane (Note: the fatty acid tails are saturated so they become straight and pack tightly, thus decreasing fluidity)
Front
What are polymers of amino acids joined by peptide bonds?
Back
proteins
Front
Casein in milk, ovalbumin in egg whites, and zein in corn seeds are examples of which type of proteins?
Back
storage proteins
Front
hemoglobin and cytochromes are examples of which type of proteins?
Back
transport proteins
Front
Which proteins catalyze reactions in both forward and reverse directions based on the substrate concentration?
Back
enzymes (Note: almost all are proteins, but RNA can also act as an enzyme)
Front
How does an enzyme change the spontaneity of a reaction?
Back
they do not (Note: they only change the rate at which the reaction occurs, not it's equilibrium point)
Front
By what factors is enzyme efficiency determined?
Back
temperature and pH
Front
Amylase catalyzes the breaking of which bonds in starch?
Back
alpha-glycosidic
Front
What are non-protein molecules that assist enzymes?
Back
cofactors
Front
What is an enzyme called that is not combined with its cofactor?
Back
apoenzyme/apoprotein
Front
What is an enzyme called that is combined with its cofactor?
Back
holoenzyme
Front
What is a cofactor that is organic?
Back
coenzyme (ex: vitamins)
Front
What is a cofactor that is covalently bound to its enzyme?
Back
prosthetic group
Front
What is the classification of proteins that are formed entirely of amino acids?
Back
simple
Front
What is the classification of functional proteins that act as carriers or enzymes?
Back
albumins and globulins
Front
What is the classification of fibrous proteins that have structural function (ex: collagen)?
Back
scleroproteins
Front
What is the classification of a simple protein and a non- protein?
Back
conjugated
Front
What is the classification of a protein bound to a lipid?
Back
lipoprotein
Front
What is the classification of a protein bound to a carbohydrate?
Back
mucoprotein
Front
What is the classification of a protein bound to a pigmented molecule?
Back
chromoprotein
Front
What is the classification of a protein complexed around a metal ion?
Back
metalloprotein
Front
What is the classification of a protein that contains histone or protamine, bound to nucleic acid?
Back
nucleoprotein
Front
Which protein structure involves the sequence of amino acids connected by peptide bonds?
Back
primary
Front
Which protein structure involves the 3D shape resulting from hydrogen bonding between amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids?
Back
secondary (Note: alpha helices and beta sheets)
Front
Which protein structure involves the 3D structure that forms due to non-covalent interactions between amino acid R groups (subunit interaction)?
Back
tertiary
Front
What are the non-covalent interactions found in tertiary structure?
Back
1. H-bonds 2. ionic bonds 3. hydrophobic effect 4. disulfide bonds 5. Van Der Waals forces
Front
Which protein structure involves the 3D shape of a protein that is a grouping of two or more separate peptide chains?
Back
quaternary structure
Front
Which proteins are somewhat water-soluble, dominated by tertiary structure, and have a diverse range of functions?
Back
globular proteins
Front
What are the functions of globular proteins?
Back
1. enzymatic 2. hormonal 3. inter/intracellular storage and transport 4. osmotic regulation 5. immune response
Front
Which proteins are not water soluble, dominated by secondary structure, are long polymers, and add strength to cells?
Back
fibrous/structural proteins (Note: collagen and keratin)
Front
Which proteins function as membrane pumps, channels, or receptors?
Back
membrane proteins
Front
What process can occur when proteins are taken out of their ideal temperature, pH range, or solvent?
Back
denaturation
Front
What happens to the structure of the protein following denaturation?
Back
reversed back to primary structure
Front
Is protein denaturation permanent?
Back
usually irreversible, but in some cases, it can be reversed with the removal of the denaturing agent
Front
What are monomers that make up nucleic acids?
Back
nucleotides
Front
What are the components of nucleotides?
Back
1. nitrogenous base 2. five carbon deoxyribose sugar 3. phosphate group
Front
What unit consists of a sugar and nitrogenous base?
Back
nucleoside
Front
What is a nitrogen-containing compound that makes up a nucleotide?
Back
nitrogenous base
Front
What are the nitrogenous bases found in DNA?
Back
1. adenine (A) 2. thymine (T) 3. cytosine (C) 4. guanine (G)
Front
How many hydrogen bonds connect A and T?
Back
2
Front
How many hydrogen bonds connect C and G?
Back
3
Front
What are the nitrogenous bases found in RNA?
Back
1. adenine (A) 2. uracil (U) 3. cytosine (C) 4. guanine (G)
Front
How many hydrogen bonds connect A and U?
Back
2
Front
How many rings do purines have?
Back
2
Front
How many rings do pyrimidines have?
Back
1
Front
Which nitrogenous bases are purines?
Back
1. adenine 2. guanine (Mnemonic: pure As Gold)
Front
Which nitrogenous bases are pyrimidines?
Back
1. cytosine 2. uracil 3. thymine (Mnemonic: CUT the PYE)
Front
What are the polymers of nucleotides?
Back
DNA and RNA
Front
Which nucleic acid contains two antiparallel strands of nucleotides arranged in a double helix?
Back
DNA
Front
Which nucleic acid is single stranded?
Back
RNA
Front
What are the principles of the cell theory?
Back
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells 2. The cell is the basic unit of structure, function, and organization in all organisms 3. All cells come from preexisting, living cells 4. Cells carry hereditary information
Front
Which foundational theory proposes that self-replicating RNA molecules were precursors to current life (based on DNA, RNA, and proteins)?
Back
RNA World Hypothesis
Front
According to the RNA World Hypothesis, which characteristics of RNA prompts scientists to suggest that RNA participated in the evolution of cellular life?
Back
1. stores genetic information 2. catalyzes chemical reactions 3. unstable compared to DNA
Front
Which foundational theory states that information must travel from DNA → RNA → proteins?
Back
Central Dogma of Genetics
Front
Which microscope uses visible light to view the surface of a sample?
Back
stereomicroscope
Front
What are the pros and cons of the stereomicroscope?
Back
pro: can view living samples con: relatively low light resolution
Front
Which microscope uses visible light to view a thin section of a sample?
Back
compound microscope
Front
What are the pros and cons of the compound microscope?
Back
pro: can view some living samples (single cell layer) con: may require staining for good visibility
Front
Which microscope uses light phases and contrast for a detailed observation of living organisms, including internal structures if thin?
Back
phase contrast microscope
Front
What are the pros and cons of the phase contrast microscope?
Back
pro: good resolution and contrast con: not ideal for thick samples (produces "Halo Effect" around samples)
Front
Which microscopy technique is used to observe thin slices while keeping a sample intact?
Back
confocal laser scanning microscope and fluorescence (Note: common method for observing chromosomes during mitosis)
Front
What are the pros and cons of the confocal laser scanning microscope and fluorescence microscopy technique?
Back
pro: can observe specific parts of a cell using fluorescent tagging con: can cause artifacts
Front
How can a confocal laser scanning microscope be used without fluorescence?
Back
laser light scans a dyed specimen and the image is displayed digitally
Front
Which microscope uses electrons to produce a detailed, 3D image of a sample's surface?
Back
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Front
What are the pros and cons of the SEM?
Back
pro: view surface of 3D objects with high resolution cons: can't use on living samples, preparation is extensive as sample needs to be dried and coated; is costly
Front
Which microscope is similar to SEM except the sample is frozen before imaging?
Back
cryo SEM
Front
What are the pros and cons of the cryo SEM?
Back
pro: sample is not dehydrated, resulting in a more 'natural form' con: can't use on living samples, samples must be frozen, which can cause artifacts
Front
Which microscope transmits a beam of electrons through a specimen to produce an image?
Back
transmission electron microscope (TEM)
Front
What are the pros and cons of the TEM?
Back
pros: can observe very thin cross- sections in high detail, internal structures have very high resolutions con: only non-living samples, preparation of sample is extensive, and technique is costly
Front
Which imaging technique uses TEM data to build up a 3D model of a sample?
Back
electron tomography
Front
What are the pros and cons of the electron tomography imaging technique?
Back
pro: can look at objects in 3D and see objects relative to one another con: only non-living samples, preparation of sample is extensive, and technique is costly
Front
What is a common technique that spins and separates liquified cell homogenates to prepare a sample for observation or further experimentation?
Back
centrifugation
Front
By what property do the layers of centrifugation separate?
Back
density
Front
By what order do the cell parts separate in centrifugation?
Back
most dense pelleting first, least dense pelleting last
Front
During centrifugation, what is the order of the separation of structures in the average cell?
Back
nuclei layer → mitochondria/ chloroplasts/lysosomes → microsomes/small vesicles → ribosomes/viruses/larger macromolecules
Front
What are the two types of centrifugation?
Back
1. differential 2. density
Front
On what characteristics does differential centrifugation rely?
Back
density, shape, and speed
Front
On what characteristics does density centrifugation rely?
Back
density
Front
What kind of sediment does density centrifugation form?
Back
continuous layers of sediment (Note: insoluble proteins in pellet, soluble in supernatant)
Front
What factor determines which way a chemical reaction will go?
Back
concentrations of products and reactants
Front
What occurs in the rate when a reaction reaches equilibrium?
Back
rate of formation of reactants and products is equal
Front
What reaction describes when small molecules are assembled into larger molecules?
Back
anabolic
Front
What reaction describes when large molecules are broken down?
Back
catabolic
Front
What agents lower the activation energy of a reaction, thereby accelerating the rate of the overall reaction?
Back
catalysts
Front
How many substrates can fit a certain enzyme?
Back
1 (Note: enzymes are substrate specific)
Front
How do enzymes change during a reaction?
Back
they remain the same
Front
Which direction of a reaction does an enzyme catalyze?
Back
both the forward and reverse reaction
Front
What factors change the function of an enzyme?
Back
temperature and pH
Front
Where does a substrate bind an enzyme?
Back
active site (Note: via induced fit)
Front
what molecule is a common source of activation energy, storing its potential energy as chemical energy?
Back
ATP
Front
By what process is new ATP made?
Back
phosphorylation (Note: ADP + phosphate + energy)
Front
Which enzymes have both an active site for substrate binding and an allosteric site for the binding of an allosteric effector
Back
allosteric enzymes
Front
The allosteric effector of enzymes do what to the enzymes activity?
Back
activate or inactivate
Front
What is a substance that mimics the substrate and inhibits the enzyme by binding at the active site?
Back
competitive inhibitor
Front
The effect of competitive inhibition can be overcome by what alteration?
Back
increasing substrate concentration (Note: Km raised but Vmax is not)
Front
What is a substance that inhibits an enzyme by binding elsewhere than the active site?
Back
noncompetitive inhibitor (Note: Km is unchanged but Vmax is altered)
Front
What inhibition occurs when an enzyme inhibitor binds only to the formed enzyme-substrate (ES) complex, preventing the formation of product?
Back
uncompetitive inhibition
Front
What constant represents the substrate concentration at which the rate of reaction is half of the max velocity of the enzyme (Vmax)?
Back
Km (Michaelis constant)
Front
What does a small Km indicate about the amount of substrate needed for an enzyme to become saturated (reach Vmax)?
Back
small amount of substrate is needed
Front
What does a high Km indicate about the amount of substrate needed for an enzyme to become saturated (reach Vmax)?
Back
large amount of substrate needed
Front
How does Km relate to substrate binding?
Back
1. high Km = worse substrate binding 2. low Km = better substrate binding
Front
What is the phenomenon that occurs where an enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after one substrate molecule binds to the active site?
Back
cooperativity (Note: hemoglobin, with its 4 binding sites for oxygen, is an excellent example)
Front
What are the two general steps in cell division?
Back
1. karyokinesis (nuclear division) 2. cytokinesis
Front
How many copies of each chromosome are there in diploid cells?
Back
2 (Note: pairs of homologous chromosomes)
Front
How many total chromosomes do humans possess in somatic cells?
Back
46 (Note: 23 homologous pairs)
Front
How many homologous pairs do humans possess?
Back
23
Front
How many chromatids do humans possess?
Back
92 (Note: total chromosomes x 2)
Front
What cell division do all body cells, or somatic cells undergo?
Back
mitosis
Front
Which structures play a large part in cell division by orienting genetic material?
Back
microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs)
Front
Each MTOC contains a pair of ____________.
Back
centrioles
Front
What are the characteristic steps of mitosis?
Back
1. prophase 2. metaphase 3. anaphase 4. telophase 5. cytokinesis (mnemonic: P-MAT-C)
Front
During prophase, what occurs in the nucleus?
Back
disassembles
Front
During prophase, what occurs in the nucleolus?
Back
disappears
Front
During prophase, what occurs in the chromatin?
Back
condenses into chromosomes
Front
During prophase, what occurs in the nuclear envelope?
Back
breaks down
Front
What organizing apparatus forms during prophase?
Back
mitotic spindle
Front
During prophase, microtubules begin connecting to which structures?
Back
kinetochores
Front
During metaphase, where do chromosomes line up?
Back
equator
Front
During metaphase, where are centrosome located?
Back
opposite poles
Front
In which step of mitosis is karyotyping performed?
Back
metaphase
Front
Sister chromatids separate during which step of mitosis?
Back
anaphase (Note: VERY IMPORTANT - chromosome number doubles during anaphase)
Front
During anaphase, what happens to microtubules?
Back
shorten
Front
Sister chromatids
Back
chromosomes (Note: new chromosomes are technically halves of the chromosomes found in metaphase)
Front
After anaphase, What is the total chromosome number in the somatic cell?
Back
92
Front
What is the process called when microtubules pull the chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell during anaphase?
Back
disjunction
Front
In which step of mitosis does nuclear division occur?
Back
telophase
Front
During telophase, what structure forms around the groups of separated chromosomes?
Back
nuclear envelope
Front
During telophase, what occurs in the chromosomes?
Back
they unravel
Front
Which stage in mitosis involves the division of cytoplasm to form two cells?
Back
cytokinesis
Front
During the cytokinesis step in animal cells, what is the name for the invagination that forms?
Back
cleavage furrow
Front
How is the cleavage furrow formed?
Back
shortening of actin and myosin microfilaments
Front
During the cytokinesis step in plant cells, what divider forms?
Back
cell plate
Front
what structures migrate and fuse to form the cell plate in plant cell mitosis?
Back
vesicles from Golgi bodies
Front
As the cell plate grows, what structure does it merge with?
Back
plasma membrane
Front
What are the phases of the cell cycle?
Back
1. G1 (growth) 2. S (DNA synthesis) 3. G2 (growth) 4. M (mitosis)
Front
During G1, how does the size of the cell change?
Back
it increases
Front
What structures are synthesized in large quantities during G1?
Back
proteins and ribosomes
Front
What step ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis during the cell cycle?
Back
G1 checkpoint
Front
Which phase of the cell cycle is the most variable in length of all the phases depending on the cell type?
Back
G1
Front
In which phase of the cell cycle is DNA replicated?
Back
S (Note: provides sister chromatids)
Front
In which phase of the cell cycle does rapid cell growth occur, organelles are replicated, and genetic material prepares for cell growth?
Back
G2
Front
Which phases of the cell cycle constitute interphase?
Back
G1, S, and G2
Front
What percentage of the cell cycle is interphase?
Back
90%
Front
Growth occurs during which cell cycle phases?
Back
all interphase phases (Note: not just G phases)
Front
What steps occur to ensure that every cell cycle phase is occurring smoothly and as planned?
Back
checkpoints
Front
What is the first and most important checkpoint in the cell cycle?
Back
G1 checkpoint
Front
If the G1 checkpoint fails, the cell enters what state?
Back
G0
Front
What type of state is G0?
Back
non-dividing
Front
Which cells can be induced out of G0?
Back
1. liver 2. kidney
Front
Which cells permanently reside in G0 if they enter the phase?
Back
nerve and muscle cells
Front
Which checkpoint of the cell cycle ensures there is sufficient mitosis promoting factor (MPF) levels to proceed to mitosis ?
Back
G2
Front
The accuracy of which process is checked at the G2 checkpoint?
Back
DNA replication
Front
Which checkpoint of the cell cycle determines if all chromosomes are attached to kinetochores?
Back
M (Note: before G1 during mitosis)
Front
What enzymes activate proteins that regulate the cell cycle via phosphorylation?
Back
cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
Front
CDKs are activated by what molecules?
Back
protein cyclins (Note: vary in type and concentration throughout each phase of the cell cycle)
Front
The plasma membrane contains receptors for which regulator that stimulates cell division?
Back
growth factor
Front
What process stops cells from dividing when the surrounding cell density reaches a maximum?
Back
density-dependent inhibition
Front
What is the phenomenon that most cells only divide when they are attached to an external surface?
Back
anchorage dependence
Front
Which cells defy CDKs, growth factors, density-dependent inhibition, and anchorage dependence?
Back
cancer cells
Front
What are the steps of meiosis?
Back
meiosis I and meiosis II (Note: each have similar steps to mitosis)
Front
How many chromosomes/chromatids are present after interphase before meiosis I begins?
Back
46 chromosomes 92 chromatids
Front
Which step in meiosis I involves nuclear material breaking down, chromatin condensing, and the mitotic spindle development?
Back
prophase I
Front
What action do the microtubules perform in prophase I?
Back
attach to kinetochores
Front
What is the process that involves homologous chromosomes pairing up, forming a tetrad (two bivalents)?
Back
synapsis
Front
What is a tetrad?
Back
group of 4 chromatids
Front
What process allows genetic recombination to occur in prophase I?
Back
crossing over
Front
What is the region where crossing over of non-sister chromatids occurs?
Back
chiasmata
Front
What is the protein structure that temporarily forms between homologous chromosomes during prophase I?
Back
synaptonemal complex (Note: gives rise to tetrad with chiasmata and crossing over)
Front
What are the 5 stages of prophase I?
Back
1. leptotene 2. zygotene 3. pachytene 4. diplotene 5. diakinesis
Front
Which stage of prophase I involves chromosomes condensing?
Back
leptotene
Front
Which stage of prophase I involves synapsis beginning and the synaptonemal complex forming?
Back
zygotene
Front
Which stage of prophase I involves completed synapsis and crossing over?
Back
pachytene
Front
Which stage of prophase I involves the synaptonemal complex disappearing, but chiasma is still present?
Back
diplotene
Front
Which stage of prophase I involves nuclear envelope fragmenting and completed chromosome condensing?
Back
diakinesis
Front
Which step of meiosis I includes microtubules attaching to kinetochores of each homologous pair along the cell's equator?
Back
metaphase I
Front
Which step of meiosis I includes homologous pairs pulling to opposite sides (disjunction)?
Back
anaphase I
Front
Which step of meiosis I has nuclear membrane develops and each pole forms a new nucleus with half the number of chromosomes?
Back
telophase I
Front
how many chromosomes/chromatids are present after meiosis I?
Back
23 chromosomes 46 chromatids (Note: 2 cells with these numbers)
Front
What step of meiosis II has the nuclear envelope disappear and the spindle develop?
Back
prophase II
Front
What is the major difference between prophase II and prophase I
Back
no crossing over in prophase II
Front
Which step of meiosis II has the chromosomes lining up across the equator of each cell?
Back
metaphase II
Front
Which step of meiosis II has each chromosome pulled into 2 separate chromatids and migrate to opposite poles of the cell?
Back
anaphase II (Note: still same number of chromosomes in each cell, just half the chromatids)
Front
Which step of meiosis II has the nuclear envelope reappearing and cytokinesis occurring?
Back
telophase II
Front
how many chromosomes/chromatids are present after meiosis II?
Back
23 chromosomes 23 chromatids (Note: 4 haploid cells with these numbers)
Front
In plants, meiosis in sporangia produces what reproductive unit?
Back
spores (Note: haploid)
Front
What process do haploid spores undergo to become multicellular haploid gametophytes?
Back
mitosis
Front
A plant's multicellular haploid gametophytes fuse together to form what reproductive unit?
Back
diploid zygote
Front
How does a plant's diploid zygote transition to a sporophyte?
Back
mitosis
Front
Cells in plants' sporophyte (sporangia) undergo what process to produce haploid spores that germinate and repeat the life cycle?
Back
meiosis (Note: known as alteration of generations)
Front
What are the 2 main ratios that dictate if a cell will divide
Back
1. surface to volume ratio 2. genome to volume ratio
Front
What surface to volume ratio is favorable for cell division?
Back
small SA:V
Front
Why would a cell not want to divide if SA:V is high?
Back
exchange across cell is easy (Note: no need to divide)
Front
What genome to volume ratio is favorable for cell division?
Back
small G:V
Front
Why would a cell need to divide if G:V is small?
Back
the genome cannot regulate cell activities (Note: some cells are multinucleate to deal with this)
Front
Which version of cell division results in genetic variety?
Back
only meiosis
Front
What are the 3 types of membrane proteins?
Back
1. peripheral 2. integral 3. transmembrane
Front
Which membrane proteins provide a passageway through the membrane for hydrophilic, polar, and charged substances?
Back
channel proteins
Front
Which membrane proteins are a type of glycoprotein that distinguish between self and foreign substances?
Back
recognition proteins (Note: MHC on macrophage)
Front
Which membrane proteins are used to pass ions across the membrane and referred to as gated channels in nerve and muscle cells?
Back
ion channels
Front
What are the types of ion channels?
Back
1. voltage-gated 2. ligand-gated 3. mechanically gated
Front
Which membrane proteins allow the passage of certain ions and small polar molecules, are less specific, and create relatively large openings?
Back
porins
Front
Which membrane proteins are specific to movement across the membrane via integral membrane proteins?
Back
carrier proteins
Front
How do carrier proteins allow specific molecules to pass across the membrane?
Back
changes shape after binding to specific molecule
Front
Which membrane proteins can use ATP to transport materials across the membrane?
Back
transport proteins (Note: includes active transport and facilitated transport)
Front
What is the difference between active transport and facilitated diffusion?
Back
active transport requires energy and facilitated diffusion does not
Front
Which membrane proteins attach cells to neighboring cells and provide anchors for stability via internal filaments and tubules?
Back
adhesion proteins
Front
Which membrane proteins serve as binding sites for hormones and other trigger molecules?
Back
receptor proteins
Front
Which membrane property allows small uncharged molecules to cross the cell membrane?
Back
phospholipid membrane semi permeability (Note: all other substances require a transporter)
Front
Which membrane component maintains membrane integrity over a range of temperatures?
Back
cholesterol (Note: sterols perform similar functions in plants)
Front
What do prokaryotic cells use instead of cholesterol in their membrane?
Back
hopanoids
Front
Which membrane component makes a carbohydrate coat that covers the cell wall of some bacteria and the plasma membrane of some animal cells?
Back
glycocalyx
Front
What are the components of the glycocalyx?
Back
1. glycolipids attached to the plasma membrane 2. glycoproteins serving as recognition proteins
Front
What are the functions of the glycocalyx?
Back
1. adhesion 2. barrier to infection 3. markers for cell-cell recognition
Front
Which organelle contains chromatin, which is the general packaging structure of DNA around proteins in eukaryotes?
Back
nucleus (Note: tightness in packaging depends on cell stage)
Front
What are tightly condensed chromatin when the cell is ready to divide?
Back
chromosomes
Front
What structures serve to organize DNA which coil around it into bundles called nucleosomes?
Back
histones
Front
Nucleosomes are wrapped around what number of histone proteins?
Back
8
Front
Which structure is located inside the nucleus and serves as the site of ribosome synthesis?
Back
nucleolus
Front
What organelles are synthesized using rRNA and proteins which are imported from the cytoplasm?
Back
ribosomes (Note: Once ribosomal subunits form, they are exported to the cytoplasm for final assembly into a complete ribosome)
Front
What is the double-layered boundary that binds the nucleus?
Back
nuclear envelope
Front
What structures allow transport across the nuclear envelope?
Back
nuclear pores
Front
What is the cytoplasm-like substance within the nucleus?
Back
nucleoplasm
Front
What is a dense fibrillar network inside of the nucleus of eukaryotic cells?
Back
nuclear lamina
Front
What are the components of the nuclear lamina?
Back
1. intermediate filaments 2. membrane-associated proteins
Front
What are the functions of the nuclear lamina?
Back
1. mechanical support 2. regulation of DNA replication, cell division, and chromatin organization
Front
Which organelle is the irregular shaped region within prokaryote cells that contains all or most of the cell's genetic material?
Back
nucleoid
Front
What is the area that contains the cell's metabolic activity and transportation (cytosol and organelles)?
Back
cytoplasm
Front
The streaming movement within the cytoplasm?
Back
cytoplasmic streaming
Front
What is cytoplasm minus suspended structures?
Back
cytosol
Front
What are organelles made of rRNA that function to make proteins?
Back
ribosomes
Front
How many subunits make up ribosomes?
Back
2
Front
Which ribosomal subunits are particular to the eukaryotic cell?
Back
60S + 40S = 80S
Front
Which ribosomal subunits are particular to the prokaryotic cell?
Back
50S+ 30S = 70S
Front
Which organelle is a network of membranous tubules within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell that is continuous with the nuclear membrane?
Back
endoplasmic reticulum
Front
Which endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes and creates glycoproteins by attaching polysaccharides to polypeptides?
Back
rough ER
Front
Which endoplasmic reticulum has no ribosomes and synthesizes lipids and steroid hormones for support?
Back
smooth ER
Front
How does the smooth ER in the liver differ compared to other locations?
Back
liver's smooth ER breaks down toxins, drugs, and toxic by-products from cellular reactions
Front
What is smooth and striated muscles' ER called?
Back
sarcoplasmic reticulum
Front
What is the function of sarcoplasmic reticulum?
Back
store and release ions like Ca2+
Front
Which organelle is a vesicle produced from the Golgi that contains digestive enzymes with low pH?
Back
lysosomes
Front
What is the function of lysosomes?
Back
1. apoptosis 2. break down nutrients, bacteria, and cell debris
Front
What is the relative pH of lysosomes?
Back
low (Note: Any enzyme that escapes from lysosomes remains inactive in the neutral pH of cytosol)
Front
Which organelle transports various substances in vesicles and has flattened sacs known as cisternae?
Back
Golgi
Front
Which vesicles are associated with the cis face of the golgi?
Back
incoming vesicles
Front
Which vesicles are associated with the trans face of the golgi?
Back
secretory vesicles
Front
Which organelle is common to the liver and kidney and breaks down substances, fatty acids, and amino acids?
Back
peroxisomes (Note: general reacition - H2O2 + RH2 → R + 2H2O)
Front
In which type of cells do peroxisomes modify by-products of photorespiration?
Back
plant cells
Front
What is the name of peroxisomes in germinating plant seeds?
Back
glyoxysomes (Note: break down stored fatty acids to fuel growth)
Front
What do peroxisomes produce to oxidize substrates?
Back
H2O2 (Note: can also break down peroxide if necessary)
Front
Which organelles are made up of the protein, tubulin and provide support and motility for cellular activities?
Back
microtubules
Front
During cell division, what structure do microtubules act as to guide chromosomes?
Back
spindle apparatus
Front
What is the arrangement of microtubules in the flagella/cilia of animal cells and lower plants (moss/ferns)?
Back
9x2 array (Note: 9 pairs of microtubules arranged in a circle with two singlets in the middle)
Front
Which organelle provides support for maintaining cell shape (ex: keratin)?
Back
intermediate filament
Front
Which organelle is made of actin and involved in cell motility; found in skeletal muscle, amoeba pseudopod, and cleavage furrows?
Back
microfilament
Front
Which organelle includes centrioles and basal bodies, are found at the base of each flagellum and cilium, and organize their development?
Back
microtubule organizing center (MTOC)
Front
What is the arrangement of MTOCs?
Back
9x3
Front
Which organelle moves materials between organelles or between organelles and the plasma membranes?
Back
transport vacuole
Front
Which organelle acts as a temporary receptacles of nutrients that merge with the lysosomes in order to breakdown food?
Back
food vacuole
Front
Which organelle is large and occupies most of the plant cell's interior?
Back
central vacuole
Front
What is the function of the central vacuole?
Back
1. maintain rigidity 2. apoptosis 3. break down nutrients, bacteria, and cell debris
Front
How does the central vacuole maintain rigidity in a plant cell?
Back
exert turgor when fully filled
Front
What is the central vacuole's specialized membrane?
Back
tonoplast
Front
Which organelle stores starch, pigments, and toxic substances such as nicotine?
Back
storage vacuole
Front
Which organelle functions to collect and pump excess water out of the cell via active transport to prevent bursting in protists?
Back
contractile vacuole
Front
Which organelle functions to provide a perimeter of support in plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria?
Back
cell wall
Front
What substance composes plant cell walls?
Back
cellulose
Front
What substance composes fungal cell walls?
Back
chitin
Front
What substance composes bacteria cell walls?
Back
peptidoglycan
Front
What substance composes archaean cell walls?
Back
polysaccharides
Front
What substance is between adjacent cells and contains fibrous structural proteins, adhesion proteins, and polysaccharides?
Back
extracellular matrix
Front
What is the function of extracellular matrix?
Back
1. provide mechanical support 2. help bind adjacent cells 3. help transmit chemical/mechanical signals
Front
What are the common proteins that binds adjacent cells?
Back
1. collagen (most common) 2. integrin 3. fibronectin
Front
What are the ways cells adhere to the extracellular matrix?
Back
1. focal adhesions 2. hemidesmosomes
Front
What connections do focal adhesions create?
Back
ECM to actin filaments
Front
What connections do hemidesmosomes create?
Back
ECM to intermediate filaments
Front
Which organelle includes chloroplasts, leucoplasts, and chromoplasts?
Back
plastids
Front
Which plant organelle is the site of photosynthesis?
Back
chloroplast
Front
Which plant organelle specializes to store starch, lipids, and proteins as amyloplasts, elaioplasts, and proteinoplasts, respectively?
Back
leucoplast
Front
Which plant organelle stores carotenoids?
Back
chromoplast
Front
Which organelle is double-layered, makes ATP, and performs beta-oxidation of fatty acids?
Back
mitochondria
Front
What shape is the DNA of mitochondria?
Back
circular
Front
Which protein making organelle are contained within mitochondria?
Back
ribosomes
Front
Which eukaryotic matrix includes microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, aids in cell division, and organelle/cytoplasm movement?
Back
cytoskeleton
Front
What action does the plant vacuole take take in a hypotonic environment?
Back
swells (Note: becomes turgid, their natural state)
Front
What state does a plant cell take in an isotonic environment?
Back
flaccid
Front
What occurs in a plant cell in a hypertonic environment?
Back
plasmolysis (Note: cytoplasm is pulled away from the cell wall)
Front
What occurs in an animal cell in a hypotonic environment?
Back
cytolysis (Note: burst)
Front
What is the network of organelles and structures, either directly or indirectly connected that transport proteins and other macromolecules into or out of the cell?
Back
endomembrane system
Front
Which organelles compose the endomembrane system?
Back
1. plasma membrane 2. ER 3. Golgi 4. nuclear envelope 5. lysosomes 6. vacuoles 7. vesicles 8. endosomes
Front
Which mobility structure undulates like a snake?
Back
flagella
Front
Which mobility structure beats in a rapid back and forth pattern?
Back
cilia
Front
What are the two methods of circulation throughout the cell?
Back
1. intracellular 2. extracellular
Front
Which method of cell circulation involves Brownian movement?
Back
intracellular
Front
Which method of cell circulation involves circular motion of cytoplasm around cell transport molecules (cyclosis/streaming)?
Back
intracellular
Front
In intracellular cell circulation, which organelle provides a channel from the nuclear membrane to the plasma membrane?
Back
ER
Front
Which method of cell circulation employs diffusion?
Back
extracellular
Front
What system is required if an organism's cells are too far from the external environment?
Back
circulatory system
Front
Which junction include desmosomes, which are keratin filaments attached to adhesion plaques which bind adjacent cells together?
Back
anchoring junctions
Front
What is the function of anchoring junctions?
Back
mechanical stability (Note: located in animal cells subject to mechanical stress - skin, epithelium, and uterus)
Front
Which junction completely encircles the cell, sealing it from the transfer of materials?
Back
tight junctions
Front
Which junction is characteristic of cells lining the digestive tract?
Back
tight junction (Note: materials must enter the cells, not pass around them)
Front
Which junction is a narrow tunnel between animal cells (connexins) that allows the passage of small molecules and ions?
Back
gap junction (Note: prevent cytoplasms of each cell from mixing - very common in heart tissue)
Front
Which junction is a narrow tunnel between plant cells?
Back
plasmodesmata
Front
Which type of cell does not have a nucleus?
Back
prokaryotic
Front
What shape is prokaryotic DNA?
Back
circular (Note: no chromatin)
Front
What is the sticky structure surrounding many prokaryotic cell walls?
Back
capsule
Front
What material composes prokaryotic flagellum?
Back
flagellin
Front
What term denotes higher solute concentration?
Back
hypertonic
Front
What term denotes lower solute concentration?
Back
hypotonic
Front
What term denotes equal solute concentration?
Back
isotonic
Front
What is the collective movement of substances such as blood in the same direction in response to a force or pressure?
Back
bulk flow
Front
Which type of movement includes simple diffusion, osmosis, dialysis, plasmolysis, facilitated diffusion, and countercurrent exchange?
Back
passive transport
Front
Which type of movement involves the movement of molecules against their concentration gradients, requiring energy?
Back
active transport
Front
Which active transport occurs when energy (ATP) is directly used to move against concentration gradients?
Back
primary active transport
Front
Which active transport occurs when energy is indirectly used to move against a concentration gradient?
Back
secondary active transport (Note: can be anti-port or co-transport)
Front
Which active transport is seen in prokaryotes when the substance being transported across the membrane is chemically altered?
Back
group translocation (Note: prevents diffusion out of the cell)
Front
Which substance movement involves bringing materials into the cell?
Back
endocytosis
Front
Which form of endocytosis involves a white blood cell engulfing undissolved material?
Back
phagocytosis
Front
Which form of endocytosis involves the plasma membrane invaginating around dissolved material (liquid)?
Back
pinocytosis
Front
Which form of endocytosis is a form of pinocytosis in which specific molecules called ligands bind to receptors?
Back
receptor mediated endocytosis
Front
What is the equation for Gibbs energy?
Back
G = H - TS
Front
What does it mean for a reaction when △G is negative?
Back
the reaction is exergonic (Note: releases energy - spontaneous)
Front
What does it mean for a reaction when △G is positive?
Back
the reaction is endergonic (Note: requires energy - non-spontaneous)
Front
What is the overall oxidative, exergonic process (△G = -686 kcal/mol) that breaks down glucose in order to derive energy in the form of ATP?
Back
cellular respiration
Front
What is the overall reaction of cellular respiration?
Back
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP
Front
What are the 4 major steps of cellular respiration?
Back
1. glycolysis 2. pyruvate decarboxylation 3. citric acid cycle 4. electron transport chain
Front
What is the decomposition of glucose into pyruvate within the cytosol?
Back
glycolysis
Front
How much energy investment is required for glycolysis?
Back
2 ATP
Front
What are the products from glycolysis?
Back
2 NADH + 4 ATP + 2 pyruvate (Note: 4 ATP produced - 2 ATP invested = 2 ATP net)
Front
The ATP formed during glycolysis is created via what process?
Back
substrate level phosphorylation (Note: direct transfer of phosphate to ADP)
Front
Which step in glycolysis is the first irreversible step?
Back
hexokinase (Note: step 1)
Front
Why is the hexokinase step irreversible?
Back
it phosphorylates glucose, which traps it in the cell
Front
Which step in glycolysis is the second irreversible step?
Back
phosphofructokinase (PFK) (Note: step 3)
Front
Why is the PFK step irreversible?
Back
adds a second phosphate, forming fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, which is energetically favorable
Front
Which step in glycolysis is the major regulatory point?
Back
PFK (Note: allosteric regulation)
Front
Where does pyruvate decarboxylation take place?
Back
mitochondrial matrix
Front
In pyruvate decarboxylation, what are the products for every molecule of glucose entered?
Back
2 NADH + 2 CO2 (Note: 2 pyruvate molecules per glucose molecule)
Front
By which enzyme is pyruvate decarboxylation catalyzed?
Back
pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC)
Front
Where does the citric acid cycle (CAC) take place?
Back
mitochondrial matrix
Front
What is the first step of the CAC?
Back
acetyl CoA merges with oxaloacetate to form citrate
Front
In the CAC, what are the products for every molecule of glucose entered?
Back
6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 GTP + 4 CO2 (Note: 2 pyruvate molecules per glucose molecule)
Front
Where does the electron transport chain (ETC) take place?
Back
mitochondrial inner membrane
Front
What is the overall reaction of oxidative phosphorylation?
Back
ADP → ATP from NADH and FADH2
Front
How does NADH compare to FADH2 in terms of energy production?
Back
NADH makes more energy than FADH2 (3:2 ratio)
Front
What molecule is the final electron acceptor of the ETC?
Back
oxygen (Note: combines with H+ protons that cross to make water)
Front
What source supplies the energy for synthesizing ATP?
Back
proton gradient (note: the whole point of the ETC is to establish a proton gradient to power ATP synthase)
Front
As the electron carriers take electrons from NADH and FADH2, what are they pumping into the intermembrane space?
Back
protons (Note: building up the proton gradient)
Front
How does ATP synthase make ATP?
Back
add phosphate to ADP through using H+ proton gradient
Front
What is a soluble carrier dissolved in the membrane that can be fully reduced/ oxidized as it passes electrons?
Back
coenzyme Q (CoQ) / ubiquinone
Front
What is a protein carrier in the ETC, is common in many living organisms, and is used for genetic relations?
Back
cytochrome C
Front
What special substances do cytochromes have that donate or accept electrons for redox reactions?
Back
non-protein elements like iron
Front
How much ATP comes from 1 molecule of glucose during cellular respiration in eukaryotes?
Back
36 ATP
Front
How much ATP comes from 1 molecule of glucose during cellular respiration in prokaryotes?
Back
38 ATP (Note: no mitochondria - so more efficient transfer of energy)
Front
What is the mechanism of ATP generation that occurs when energy is stored in the form of a proton concentration gradient?
Back
chemiosmosis
Front
What reaction do NADH and FADH2 undergo to transfer proteins across the mitochondrial membrane?
Back
oxidation
Front
What is the force of the protons flowing through ATP synthase called?
Back
proton motive force
Front
What type of gradient is created through the proton pumping process in the ETC?
Back
pH and electrical
Front
What does higher proton concentration mean for pH?
Back
lower pH
Front
Why is ATP unstable?
Back
3 negative phosphate groups repel one another
Front
Why does hydrolysis of ATP release energy?
Back
creates a more stable ADP molecule (Note: transitions from less stable to more stable molecules always releases energy)
Front
How does ATP provide energy for all cells?
Back
transferring phosphate from ATP to another molecule
Front
What are the steps involved in anaerobic respiration?
Back
1. glycolysis 2. fermentation
Front
What molecule does fermentation regenerate?
Back
NAD+ (Note: required for the continuation of glycolysis)
Front
Under normal circumstances (oxygen present), how is NAD+ regenerated?
Back
in the ETC using O2
Front
In what organisms does alcohol fermentation occur?
Back
1. plants 2. fungi 3. bacteria
Front
What is the overall process of alcohol fermentation?
Back
1. Pyruvate → acetaldehyde + CO2 2. acetaldehyde → ethanol (and NADH → NAD+)
Front
What is the final electron acceptor in alcohol fermentation?
Back
acetaldehyde
Front
What is the final product of alcohol fermentation?
Back
ethanol
Front
In what organisms does lactic acid fermentation occur?
Back
humans and other microbes
Front
What is the overall process of lactic acid fermentation?
Back
Pyruvate → lactate (and NADH → NAD+)
Front
Where is lactate transported to be converted back into glucose?
Back
liver (Note: once ATP needs are met)
Front
Which organisms use oxygen when it's present (more efficient) but switch to fermentation/anaerobic respiration if it isn't?
Back
facultative anaerobes
Front
Which organisms cannot live in the presence of oxygen?
Back
obligate anaerobes
Front
When glucose is low, in what order does the body use alternative energy sources?
Back
1. other carbohydrates 2. fats 3. proteins
Front
What is another way to obtain glucose other than ingesting food?
Back
gluconeogenesis
Front
After large meals, into what molecule does insulin prompt the body to convert glucose?
Back
glycogen (Note: a storage molecule)
Front
After an extended period of no food, into what molecule does glucagon prompt the body to convert glycogen?
Back
glucose (Note: mobilize the stored glycogen for energy needs)
Front
What effect does insulin have on PFK?
Back
activates PFK (Note: insulin wants to use the glucose!)
Front
What effect does glucagon have on PFK?
Back
inhibits PFK (Note: glucagon wants to conserve glucose!)
Front
How are disaccharides modified to enter cellular respiration?
Back
hydrolyzed to monosaccharides
Front
What are the cells that store large amounts of glycogen?
Back
1. liver 2. muscle
Front
Why are fats the most efficient storage molecules?
Back
stores more energy per carbon than other molecules (note: their carbons are in a very reduced state)
Front
Which enzymes in adipose tissue are hormone sensitive (e.g to glucagon)?
Back
Lipases
Front
How is glycerol modified to enter glycolysis
Back
converted to PGAL
Front
How are fatty acids modified to enter the CAC?
Back
converted to acetyl CoA (Note: every two carbons on a fatty acid are converted to a single acetyl CoA molecule)
Front
What are fatty acids attached to while in the blood stream?
Back
albumin
Front
What is the process that converts fatty acid chains into molecules of acetyl CoA?
Back
beta-oxidation
Front
Where does beta-oxidation take place?
Back
mitochondrial matrix
Front
What is the energy investment to activate a fatty acid for catabolism?
Back
2 ATP
Front
For every molecule of acetyl CoA cleaved from a saturated fatty acid, what is the energy payoff for each cut?
Back
1 NADH + 1 FADH2 (Note: every cut produces these molecules)
Front
How many times will an 18 carbon saturated fatty acid be cut during beta-oxidation?
Back
8 (Note: last cut splits a 4 carbon molecule into 2 acetyl CoA's)
Front
How does the energy payoff of an unsaturated fatty acid compare to a saturated fatty acid?
Back
unsaturated fatty acids produce 1 less FADH2 per double bond (Note: can't use the double bond forming step in beta-oxidation)
Front
Between meals, most lipids of plasma are in what form?
Back
lipoproteins (Note: chylomicrons are large lipoproteins)
Front
Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) have a low density of which molecules?
Back
proteins (Note: high fat = unhealthy)
Front
High-density lipoproteins (HDL) have a high density of which molecules?
Back
proteins (Note: low fat = healthy)
Front
How are amino acids activated for catabolism?
Back
most amino acids are deaminated in the liver
Front
After deamination, how are amino acids further modified for catabolism?
Back
converted to pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or other CAC intermediates (Note: each amino acid is different)
Front
Oxidative deamination removes which molecule directly from amino acids?
Back
ammonia (Note: toxic to vertebrates)
Front
How do most aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates excrete ammonia?
Back
excrete it directly
Front
How do insects, birds, and reptiles excrete ammonia?
Back
convert it to uric acid
Front
How do mammals, sharks, and most amphibians excrete ammonia?
Back
convert it to urea
Front
What is the process that harnesses light energy in order to synthesize glucose?
Back
photosynthesis
Front
What is the overall reaction of photosynthesis?
Back
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Front
Which pigments function to absorb energy from light in photosynthesis?
Back
1. chlorophyll a (red) 2. chlorophyll b (orange) 3. carotenoids (yellow)
Front
When light energy is absorbed, where is that energy incorporated?
Back
into electrons of pigment molecules
Front
Which chlorophyll a molecule composes photosystem I (PSI)
Back
P700
Front
Which chlorophyll a molecule composes photosystem II (PSII)
Back
P680
Front
What is the function of antenna pigments (chlorophyll b, carotenoids, phycobilins [red algae pigment], xanthophylls)?
Back
pass energy to chlorophyll a
Front
What structural component does chlorophyll a possess that is critical for light reactions?
Back
porphyrin ring consisting of conjugated double bonds (Note: double bonds absorb light energy easily)
Front
With what metal is the porphyrin ring of chlorophyll a complexed?
Back
Mg atom
Front
Which chloroplast component is the location where H+ accumulates as a result of the ETC?
Back
thylakoid lumen
Front
Which chloroplast component is suspended within the stroma with its membranes contain photosystems, cytochromes, and electron carriers?
Back
thylakoid
Front
Which chloroplast component is the fluid material that fills area inside the inner membrane and is the location of the Calvin cycle?
Back
stroma
Front
Which chloroplast components both consist of a phospholipid bilayer?
Back
inner and outer membrane
Front
Where does non-cyclic photophosphorylation take place?
Back
thylakoid membrane
Front
Where does cyclic phosphorylation take place?
Back
stroma lamellae
Front
Where does photolysis take place?
Back
thylakoid lumen (Note: passes electrons to thylakoid membrane)
Front
Where does the Calvin cycle take place?
Back
stroma
Front
Where does chemiosmosis take place?
Back
across the thylakoid membrane
Front
Which step in photosynthesis follows the reaction: ADP + Pi + light → ATP?
Back
non-cyclic photophosphorylation (NCP)
Front
In NCP, which photosystem is first energized by light?
Back
PSII (Note: the electrons trapped by P680)
Front
How many electrons does PSII pass in NCP to a primary electron acceptor?
Back
2 electrons
Front
The electrons passed from PSII in NCP enter which process?
Back
electron transport chain (ETC)
Front
What structures compose the first ETC during NCP?
Back
1. cytochrome proteins 2. Fe2+ as cofactor (Note: all within PSII)
Front
The two electrons that move down the first ETC during NCP are used to phosphorylate how many ATP?
Back
1.5 ATP
Front
The first ETC during NCP terminates in which structure?
Back
PSI (Note: electrons within P700)
Front
What happens to the electrons that reach PSI?
Back
are re-energized by sunlight and are passed to another primary electron acceptor
Front
At the end of PSI, into what path do the electrons enter?
Back
1. non-cyclic photophosphorylation path or 2. cyclic photophosphorylation path
Front
If the electrons from PSI continue on the non-cyclic path, what process do they enter?
Back
ETC (note: it is a short ETC)
Front
What is the function of the short ETC in NCP?
Back
proteins like ferredoxin combine NADP+ and H+ and two electrons to form NADPH
Front
How are the two electrons lost in step 2 from PSII replaced during NCP?
Back
splitting of water
Front
What is the function of the H+ formed from the splitting of water during NCP?
Back
NADPH formation
Front
What is the function of the oxygen formed from the splitting of water during NCP?
Back
released as gas
Front
What is the overall reaction of NCP?
Back
H2O + ADP + Pi + NADP + light → ATP + NADPH + O2 + H+
Front
What is the function of the cyclic photophosphorylation (CP) path?
Back
replenish ATP lost in the Calvin cycle
Front
How does the CP path generate ATP?
Back
2 excited electrons from PSI join electron carriers from the first ETC and generate 1 ATP
Front
How are the electrons used to generate ATP in the CP path replenished?
Back
recycled into PSI and continue to have an option to enter the cyclic or non-cyclic path
Front
What is the dark reaction that fixes 6 CO2 molecules through a cycle that repeats 6 times to ultimately synthesize glucose?
Back
Calvin cycle
Front
What are the 4 steps of the Calvin cycle?
Back
1. carboxylation 2. reduction 3. regeneration 4. carbohydrate synthesis
Front
In the Calvin cycle's carboxylation step, 6 CO + 6 RuBP join to form how many PGA?
Back
12 PGA
Front
In the Calvin cycle's carboxylation step, what enzyme catalyzes the reaction?
Back
RuBisCo
Front
In the Calvin cycle's reduction step, 12 ATP + 12 NADPH convert 12 PGA to how many G3P or PGAL?
Back
12 G3P or 12 PGAL

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